The Affect of Ijtihad on Scientific Research in the Khilafah State
A growing disparity between the Muslim World and the West is becoming increasingly apparent. This disparity takes many forms: economic, technological, military and also the standard of living via material progress. During the Ottoman period, Muslims were unable to see Islam's application, and indeed ability to provide solutions, in their ever-changing world. Looking back to the history of the Khilafah, however, we see Muslim scholars devising solutions to society's problems through the process of ijtihad. Ijtihad means exhausting all of ones efforts in studying a problem thoroughly and seeking a solution for it from the sources of Shari'ah. Ijtihad may only be performed by those qualified to do so. The Muslim scientists carried out research and derived theories that left Europe standing in their wake. This article aims to show how, through the process of ijtihad, the level of material progress as a result of scientific research can take place in the future Khilafah State.
Muslim Achievements of the Past
Although Insaan (mankind) has not changed with time, the society's requirements, and to a lesser extent the individual's requirements, do change. What does change quite rapidly are the tools Insaan uses to satisfy the basic organic needs and instincts that are integral to the Nature (Fitra) of Man. As societies expanded, so did the requirements for things such as agricultural produce and irrigation. Means of travel had to change to move Muslims to far off lands as the Khilafah took Islam to places that were impractical to travel to by land alone; hence, ship building and navigation had to improve. All these changes did not just appear haphazardly but arose as a result of fundamental concepts and processes. The Muslims understood that Islam came to be applied to the reality, whatever that reality would be. They understood that every action requires a hukm, and when Insaan does an action he will end up utilising things or objects. It is Insaan's use of the things and objects that required the Muslims to seek the hukm of Allah (swt). In order for the Muslims to know how to apply Islam to their reality to provide solutions for their everyday lives, they needed to understand the reality. Countless ayat of the Qur'an appeal to Insaan's mind:
''And He it is Who hath set for you the stars that ye may guide your course by them amid the darkness of the land and the sea, We have detailed Our revelations for a people who have knowledge� [ Al-An'am: 97].
''Say (O Muhammad): Travel in the land and see how He originated creation� [Q Al-�Ankabut: 20].
''And He it is Who created the night and the day, and then sun and the moon. They float, each in an orbit� [TMQ Al-Anbiya': 33].
''Then fashioned We the drop a thing that clings, then fashioned We the thing which clings like a chewed lump of flesh, then fashioned We the chewed flesh into bones, then clothed the bones with flesh, and then produced it another creation� [ Al-Mu'minun: 14].
These ayat provoke thought. They would inspire the Muslims to produce tools and technology that was unparalleled during this time. Some examples of these discoveries are:
Glass mirrors were used in Islamic Spain in the 11th Century. It was not until much later that the Venetians learned of the art of fine glass production from Syrian artisans.
Muslim engineers produced a variety of mechanical clocks, contrary to what is taught in schools today. This knowledge was transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of Islamic books on mechanics. These books included designs and illustrations of epi-cycling and segmental gears. The books further indicated that these clocks were weight driven.
In 1454, Gutenberg developed the most sophisticated printing press of the time. However, movable brass type was in use in Islamic Spain 100 years prior. Spain is where the West's first printing devices were made.
Ar-Razi, Ibn Sina, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, az-Zahrawi, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim physicians mastered the science of drug therapy for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. In fact, this concept was entirely their invention. The word "drug" is derived from Arabic. Their use of practical experience and careful observation was extensive. Muslim physicians were the first to criticise ancient medical theories and practices. Ar-Razi devoted an entire book as a critique of Galen's anatomy. The works of Paracelsus are insignificant compared to the vast volumes of medical writings and original findings accomplished by the medical giants of Islam.
Ijtihad allowed the Muslims to remain at the forefront. Soon, however, the doors of ijtihad closed, and with it went the Khilafah's status as the world leader with regards to issues such as technology.
Closing the doors of Ijtihad and Decline
By the 4th Century AH ijtihad and the resulting hukms had become well documented amongst the four main Madhabs (schools of thought). Some scholars were concerned by the fact that almost anybody was able to do ijtihad without any checks or balances. One of the primary factors that contributed towards the closing of the doors of ijtihad was an increasing neglect of the Arabic language. The Arabic language is the medium by which revelation becomes accessible, neglecting it, therefore, would result in an inability to derive laws from the Qur'an and Sunnah. Islam would not be able to be applied without this. As a result, the doors of ijtihad began to close, and the doors of taqleed (or imitation) opened. At one point, ijtihad became impossible, and as a result new issues and circumstances were left out without knowing the Islamic views on them. Without ijtihad the Hukm Shari' would not be able to address new problems. As a result, many Muslims began to believe that Islam was becoming outdated. Some actually began to look to the Kufr civilisation for answers to new issues.
The decline of ijtihad resulted in the development of various philosophies concerning the status of the Ummah and their adherence to Islam. Some people started issuing opinions concerning the new problems without any daleel or specific methodology of conducting ijtihad. Others prematurely jumped to answers without acquiring the necessary prerequisites for ijtihad. They claimed that ijtihad should not cease, and that the current situation provided everyone with the opportunity to perform ijtihad.
By closing the doors of ijtihad, the fundamental link between the sources of Islam (the Qur'an and Sunnah), the solutions that are derived and the relationship between the solutions and the belief (Aqeedah), were severed. The Muslims did not understand why they were practicing Islam the way it was, and hence they would be unable to argue the benefits of Islam from the basis. When confronted with the Industrial Revolution and the challenge of democracy and freedom later on in the eighteenth century, the Ummah did not have the correct criteria at their disposal to judge what was acceptable from the Industrial Revolution and what was not. Inevitably, we saw the adoption of Kufr thoughts, such as pluralism, democracy and nationality.
The Renaissance
Whilst the Muslims started to become more detached from their ideology as a result of the decline of Arabic and cessation of new ijtihad, Europe experienced radical developments. A change in their way of thinking occurred that broke the stranglehold that the Church and the monarchy had on society. This altered both government and the outlook of the individual. Those whose discoveries contradicted the clergy initiated this change; Galileo was one such scientist. What resulted was a change from scholasticism to science. Scholasticism, which assumed that answers to questions about nature could be deduced from the Bible and philosophical principals, gave way to the modern view of science, where induction from accumulated evidence underpinned the original theories. The evidence produced by science was so conclusive, that the Church was forced into a compromise. Secularism, which was to forge the ideology of Capitalism, was born. Science, coupled with the adoption of the Capitalist ideology, lead to rapid technological and material advances such as the steam engine and electricity. Material progress rose as a direct result of the adoption of a new ideology. This same ideology would later be the catalyst for the division of Muslim land and the destruction of the Khilafah at the hands of the British via Mustafa Kemal. Muslims could only watch as Europe began to assert itself on the international scene.
How Ijtihad Can Aid Scientific Research
So far the discussion has been on what the Ummah once was like under the Khilafah in terms of science and technology and how that position was lost. It is important to discuss how the Ummah can re-establish that same lofty position. No doubt this can only occur by the Ummah adhering to its ideology. This requires the Arabic language and ijtihad to access the sources of Islam so that solutions emanating from Islam can be extracted. In this day and age where technological change is so rapid, with issues such as cloning and specifically engineered crops, it is crucial to have an understanding of the Hukm Shari'i.
Those who are qualified to do ijtihad are called Mujtahid. There are three types of Mujtahid. First, there are the Mujtahid Mutlaq. They can carry out ijtihad fi'sh-Shar. They have their own Usul al Fiqh to extract Ahkam and are not restricted. Second, there are the Mujtahid Madhab. They can carry out ijtihad fi'l-Madhab. They follow the Usul of the Mujtahid Mutlaq of that particular Madhab. Third, there are the Mujtahid who specialize in a specific issue. They can carry out ijtihad fi'l-Masaa'il.
All of these Mujtahid must exhibit certain qualifications. They must be a Muslim male or female who has a high level of intellectual competence. They must be knowledgeable about the Arabic language, which enables the comprehension of the sources of Islam. They must be knowledgeable in terms of the Qur'an, circumstance of revelations, Madani or Makki ayat and ayat ul ahkam. They are required to be knowledgeable with regards to the Sunnah, abrogations and reliability of narrators of hadith as well as Usul al Fiqh. An awareness of the opinions of other mujtahideen on specific issues is also necessary. Finally, the Mujtahid must have tahqeequl manat, or comprehensive knowledge, of the issue on which ijtihad is being carried out.
It is for this thorough understanding of the reality that the Mujtahid goes to experts or carries out the study himself. In many cases scientific research will be required. This means using either observational science or experimental science. Scientific research requires the use of empirical thinking, which should be applied strictly to science alone. Through this means, by gathering facts one may formulate a hypothesis and then develop theories. This type of thinking is simply a subset of the rational way of thinking.
Knowledge gained through research is generally published in a journal. A paper has to be written justifying why the particular piece of research is significant. This paper will include details of the methods used, a recording of results and observations and then explaining what these results mean relative to what is already known. Other experts have to review this research. Science becomes knowledge by the publication of the results. Of course the Mujtahid, or the expert on his behalf in the Khilafah State, would be doing the research in order to be able to apply Allah's (swt) hukm to the reality. This process would raise the level of research being conducted, open new areas of research and increase the level of the discoveries that would ultimately help the Khilafah State progress technologically and materially.
These studies lead to an increasing wealth of scientific information in the Khilafah. This level of research has a direct link with the new discoveries and technological spin offs. Developments such as flight, the Internet, cloning, new drugs, fibre optics and Global Positioning Satellites are a result of research or application of new theories. Like the West, the Khilafah will strive to be on the cutting-edge of technology; however, the motivation behind collecting this knowledge will differ fundamentally. The whole purpose for a Muslim to carry these scientific studies is so that we would be able to worship Allah (swt) in every aspect of life, whereas the Kuffar are primarily motivated by economic reasons. Drug companies and software firms patenting designs so only they can benefit, is a direct result of this corruption. Through the application of ijtihad we can see how the Khilafah State can once again begin to assert itself on the scientific front as Allah (swt) has allowed us to do in the past.
AdduOnline
Muslim Achievements of the Past
Although Insaan (mankind) has not changed with time, the society's requirements, and to a lesser extent the individual's requirements, do change. What does change quite rapidly are the tools Insaan uses to satisfy the basic organic needs and instincts that are integral to the Nature (Fitra) of Man. As societies expanded, so did the requirements for things such as agricultural produce and irrigation. Means of travel had to change to move Muslims to far off lands as the Khilafah took Islam to places that were impractical to travel to by land alone; hence, ship building and navigation had to improve. All these changes did not just appear haphazardly but arose as a result of fundamental concepts and processes. The Muslims understood that Islam came to be applied to the reality, whatever that reality would be. They understood that every action requires a hukm, and when Insaan does an action he will end up utilising things or objects. It is Insaan's use of the things and objects that required the Muslims to seek the hukm of Allah (swt). In order for the Muslims to know how to apply Islam to their reality to provide solutions for their everyday lives, they needed to understand the reality. Countless ayat of the Qur'an appeal to Insaan's mind:
''And He it is Who hath set for you the stars that ye may guide your course by them amid the darkness of the land and the sea, We have detailed Our revelations for a people who have knowledge� [ Al-An'am: 97].
''Say (O Muhammad): Travel in the land and see how He originated creation� [Q Al-�Ankabut: 20].
''And He it is Who created the night and the day, and then sun and the moon. They float, each in an orbit� [TMQ Al-Anbiya': 33].
''Then fashioned We the drop a thing that clings, then fashioned We the thing which clings like a chewed lump of flesh, then fashioned We the chewed flesh into bones, then clothed the bones with flesh, and then produced it another creation� [ Al-Mu'minun: 14].
These ayat provoke thought. They would inspire the Muslims to produce tools and technology that was unparalleled during this time. Some examples of these discoveries are:
Glass mirrors were used in Islamic Spain in the 11th Century. It was not until much later that the Venetians learned of the art of fine glass production from Syrian artisans.
Muslim engineers produced a variety of mechanical clocks, contrary to what is taught in schools today. This knowledge was transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of Islamic books on mechanics. These books included designs and illustrations of epi-cycling and segmental gears. The books further indicated that these clocks were weight driven.
In 1454, Gutenberg developed the most sophisticated printing press of the time. However, movable brass type was in use in Islamic Spain 100 years prior. Spain is where the West's first printing devices were made.
Ar-Razi, Ibn Sina, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, az-Zahrawi, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim physicians mastered the science of drug therapy for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. In fact, this concept was entirely their invention. The word "drug" is derived from Arabic. Their use of practical experience and careful observation was extensive. Muslim physicians were the first to criticise ancient medical theories and practices. Ar-Razi devoted an entire book as a critique of Galen's anatomy. The works of Paracelsus are insignificant compared to the vast volumes of medical writings and original findings accomplished by the medical giants of Islam.
Ijtihad allowed the Muslims to remain at the forefront. Soon, however, the doors of ijtihad closed, and with it went the Khilafah's status as the world leader with regards to issues such as technology.
Closing the doors of Ijtihad and Decline
By the 4th Century AH ijtihad and the resulting hukms had become well documented amongst the four main Madhabs (schools of thought). Some scholars were concerned by the fact that almost anybody was able to do ijtihad without any checks or balances. One of the primary factors that contributed towards the closing of the doors of ijtihad was an increasing neglect of the Arabic language. The Arabic language is the medium by which revelation becomes accessible, neglecting it, therefore, would result in an inability to derive laws from the Qur'an and Sunnah. Islam would not be able to be applied without this. As a result, the doors of ijtihad began to close, and the doors of taqleed (or imitation) opened. At one point, ijtihad became impossible, and as a result new issues and circumstances were left out without knowing the Islamic views on them. Without ijtihad the Hukm Shari' would not be able to address new problems. As a result, many Muslims began to believe that Islam was becoming outdated. Some actually began to look to the Kufr civilisation for answers to new issues.
The decline of ijtihad resulted in the development of various philosophies concerning the status of the Ummah and their adherence to Islam. Some people started issuing opinions concerning the new problems without any daleel or specific methodology of conducting ijtihad. Others prematurely jumped to answers without acquiring the necessary prerequisites for ijtihad. They claimed that ijtihad should not cease, and that the current situation provided everyone with the opportunity to perform ijtihad.
By closing the doors of ijtihad, the fundamental link between the sources of Islam (the Qur'an and Sunnah), the solutions that are derived and the relationship between the solutions and the belief (Aqeedah), were severed. The Muslims did not understand why they were practicing Islam the way it was, and hence they would be unable to argue the benefits of Islam from the basis. When confronted with the Industrial Revolution and the challenge of democracy and freedom later on in the eighteenth century, the Ummah did not have the correct criteria at their disposal to judge what was acceptable from the Industrial Revolution and what was not. Inevitably, we saw the adoption of Kufr thoughts, such as pluralism, democracy and nationality.
The Renaissance
Whilst the Muslims started to become more detached from their ideology as a result of the decline of Arabic and cessation of new ijtihad, Europe experienced radical developments. A change in their way of thinking occurred that broke the stranglehold that the Church and the monarchy had on society. This altered both government and the outlook of the individual. Those whose discoveries contradicted the clergy initiated this change; Galileo was one such scientist. What resulted was a change from scholasticism to science. Scholasticism, which assumed that answers to questions about nature could be deduced from the Bible and philosophical principals, gave way to the modern view of science, where induction from accumulated evidence underpinned the original theories. The evidence produced by science was so conclusive, that the Church was forced into a compromise. Secularism, which was to forge the ideology of Capitalism, was born. Science, coupled with the adoption of the Capitalist ideology, lead to rapid technological and material advances such as the steam engine and electricity. Material progress rose as a direct result of the adoption of a new ideology. This same ideology would later be the catalyst for the division of Muslim land and the destruction of the Khilafah at the hands of the British via Mustafa Kemal. Muslims could only watch as Europe began to assert itself on the international scene.
How Ijtihad Can Aid Scientific Research
So far the discussion has been on what the Ummah once was like under the Khilafah in terms of science and technology and how that position was lost. It is important to discuss how the Ummah can re-establish that same lofty position. No doubt this can only occur by the Ummah adhering to its ideology. This requires the Arabic language and ijtihad to access the sources of Islam so that solutions emanating from Islam can be extracted. In this day and age where technological change is so rapid, with issues such as cloning and specifically engineered crops, it is crucial to have an understanding of the Hukm Shari'i.
Those who are qualified to do ijtihad are called Mujtahid. There are three types of Mujtahid. First, there are the Mujtahid Mutlaq. They can carry out ijtihad fi'sh-Shar. They have their own Usul al Fiqh to extract Ahkam and are not restricted. Second, there are the Mujtahid Madhab. They can carry out ijtihad fi'l-Madhab. They follow the Usul of the Mujtahid Mutlaq of that particular Madhab. Third, there are the Mujtahid who specialize in a specific issue. They can carry out ijtihad fi'l-Masaa'il.
All of these Mujtahid must exhibit certain qualifications. They must be a Muslim male or female who has a high level of intellectual competence. They must be knowledgeable about the Arabic language, which enables the comprehension of the sources of Islam. They must be knowledgeable in terms of the Qur'an, circumstance of revelations, Madani or Makki ayat and ayat ul ahkam. They are required to be knowledgeable with regards to the Sunnah, abrogations and reliability of narrators of hadith as well as Usul al Fiqh. An awareness of the opinions of other mujtahideen on specific issues is also necessary. Finally, the Mujtahid must have tahqeequl manat, or comprehensive knowledge, of the issue on which ijtihad is being carried out.
It is for this thorough understanding of the reality that the Mujtahid goes to experts or carries out the study himself. In many cases scientific research will be required. This means using either observational science or experimental science. Scientific research requires the use of empirical thinking, which should be applied strictly to science alone. Through this means, by gathering facts one may formulate a hypothesis and then develop theories. This type of thinking is simply a subset of the rational way of thinking.
Knowledge gained through research is generally published in a journal. A paper has to be written justifying why the particular piece of research is significant. This paper will include details of the methods used, a recording of results and observations and then explaining what these results mean relative to what is already known. Other experts have to review this research. Science becomes knowledge by the publication of the results. Of course the Mujtahid, or the expert on his behalf in the Khilafah State, would be doing the research in order to be able to apply Allah's (swt) hukm to the reality. This process would raise the level of research being conducted, open new areas of research and increase the level of the discoveries that would ultimately help the Khilafah State progress technologically and materially.
These studies lead to an increasing wealth of scientific information in the Khilafah. This level of research has a direct link with the new discoveries and technological spin offs. Developments such as flight, the Internet, cloning, new drugs, fibre optics and Global Positioning Satellites are a result of research or application of new theories. Like the West, the Khilafah will strive to be on the cutting-edge of technology; however, the motivation behind collecting this knowledge will differ fundamentally. The whole purpose for a Muslim to carry these scientific studies is so that we would be able to worship Allah (swt) in every aspect of life, whereas the Kuffar are primarily motivated by economic reasons. Drug companies and software firms patenting designs so only they can benefit, is a direct result of this corruption. Through the application of ijtihad we can see how the Khilafah State can once again begin to assert itself on the scientific front as Allah (swt) has allowed us to do in the past.
AdduOnline
"O my Lord, the stars are shining and the eyes of men are closed, and kings have shut
their doors, and every lover is alone with his beloved, and here I am alone with Thee."
their doors, and every lover is alone with his beloved, and here I am alone with Thee."
[Rabia al-Adawiyya]
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